These are the final benchmarks and indicators (adopted Dec. 10, 2002) relating to "biological origins" (the origin and development/diversity of life on earth). Science Excellence for All Ohioans has emphasized the "teach the controversy" approach to biological origins. This approach was first described by Dr. Stephen Meyer at the March 11, 2002, Panel Presentation in Columbus. This includes (a) teaching the evidence for and against biological evolution (macroevolution - the theory of undirected common descent), (b) permitting, but not requiring, teachers to discuss alternative theories such as intelligent design, and (c) adopting a definition of science that allows for consideration of all logical explanations for phenomena in nature.

We are pleased that the final standards substantially support the "teach the controversy" approach. This is not to say that we agree with all the wording. In the "Comment" section after each indicator or benchmark below, we list problems that we see with specific language that is used.

The following benchmarks and indicators are those that deal with biological origins in some way; most of these are in the Grade 10 Life Sciences section. We have not listed any standards from Grades 11-12, since these are not subject to state testing.

Benchmark. Grades 9-10, Life Sciences-E. Explain how evolutionary relationships contribute to an understanding of the unity and diversity of life.

Comment. Insertion of the word "may" before "contribute" would help to show that biological evolution is a theory.

Benchmark. Grades 9-10, Life Sciences-H. Describe a foundation of biological evolution as the change in gene frequency of a population over time. Explain the historical and current scientific developments, mechanisms and processes of biological evolution. Describe how scientists continue to investigate and critically analyze aspects of evolutionary theory. (The intent of this benchmark does not mandate the teaching or testing of intelligent design.)

Comment. This is a reasonable benchmark. We commend the State Board of Education for adding the sentence calling for "critical analysis" at their October meeting. The parenthetical statement regarding "intelligent design" was added in December. The inference of this statement is that a discussion of intelligent design is permitted in the classroom, at the discretion of the teacher and local school officials.

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Benchmark. Grades 9-10, Life Sciences-I. Explain how natural selection and other evolutionary mechanisms account for the unity and diversity of past and present life forms.

Comment. Insertion of the word "may" before "account" would help to show that biological evolution is a theory.

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Benchmark. Grades 9-10, Earth and Space Sciences-C. Explain the 4.5 billion-year-history of Earth and the 4 billion-year-history of life on Earth based on observable scientific evidence in the geologic record.

Comment. Overall we think this benchmark is worded too strongly. Something along these lines would be preferable: "Describe how the observable scientific evidence in the geologic record may be used to gain information on the history of Earth and life on Earth."

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Indicator. Grade 8, Life Sciences (Evolutionary Theory) #4. Explain that diversity of species is developed through gradual processes over many generations (e.g., fossil record).

Comment. The general trend observed in the fossil record is the abrupt appearance of new species (e.g., the Cambrian explosion), stasis over long periods of time, and finally extinction (often catastrophic). This pattern of abrupt appearance, stasis, and extinction shows that both gradual and rapid changes must have taken place in Earth's history. To mention only "gradual" processes in the indicator is thus inaccurate.

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Indicator. Grade10, Life Sciences (Diversity and Interdependence of Life) #12. Describe that biological classification represents how organisms are related, with species being the most fundamental unit of the classification system. Relate how biologists arrange organisms into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups based on similarities and differences that reflect their evolutionary relationships.

Comment. The Linnaean classification system (which is still used to a large extent) was developed during the 18^th century, long before the advent of Darwinian evolution. Thus it is inaccurate to say that classifications of organisms "reflect their evolutionary relationships," and we would prefer that this phrase be removed from the indicator. Classifications are based on similarities in form and function.

It is true that some modern (cladistic) methods seek to develop classifications based on evolutionary relationships. Cladistic taxonomy is troublesome in practice, however. For example, Richard Dawkins (The Blind Watchmaker, 1996, p. 284) says "it is difficult to pin down the precise identity of ancestors, and there is a good case for not even trying to do so."

Indicator. Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolutionary Theory) #20. Recognize that a change in gene frequency (genetic composition) in a population over time is a foundation of biological evolution.

Comment. The meaning of the term "change in gene frequency" could be stated more clearly. A change in gene frequency would seem to be microevolution, the normal genetic variation within a population. Macroevolution, or descent with modification from a common ancestry, would require an increase in genetic information and complexity. It is debatable whether this increase in genetic information/complexity can be accomplished via proposed evolutionary mechanisms (i.e., formation of new combinations of existing genes, or mutation of genes, accompanied by natural selection). It is unfortunate that the standards do not make a distinction between microevolution, which is well-supported experimentally, and macroevolution, which is ultimately based on similarities rather than experimentation.

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Indicator. Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolutionary Theory) #21. Explain that natural selection provides the following mechanism for evolution: undirected variation in inherited characteristics exists within every species. These characteristics may give individuals an advantage or disadvantage compared to others in surviving and reproducing. The advantaged offspring are more likely to survive and reproduce. Therefore, the proportion of individuals that have advantageous characteristics will increase. When an environment changes, the survival value of some inherited characteristics may change.

Comment. This indicator basically describes microevolution, which is well accepted. In any case, the validity of natural selection is not the issue. The issue is whether natural evolution and other evolutionary mechanisms are sufficient to enact macroevolutionary change. This indicator does not address this topic.

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Indicator. Life Sciences (Evolutionary Theory) #22. Describe historical scientific developments that occurred in evolutionary thought (e.g., Lamarck and Darwin, Mendelian genetics and modern synthesis).

Comment. A discussion of historical developments in biological origins should include a discussion of theories that have competed with Darwinian evolution (such as inheritance of acquired traits, special creation, panspermia, and intelligent design). The new Ohio standards give teachers the freedom to discuss alternative theories that have been considered historically or are being investigated today.

Indicator. Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolutionary Theory) #23. Describe how scientists continue to investigate and critically analyze aspects of evolutionary theory. (The intent of this indicator does not mandate the teaching or testing of intelligent design.)

Comment. This indicator substantially incorporates parts (a) and (b) of the "teach the controversy" approach. This indicator is consistent with the Santorum language in the conference report of the federal "No Child Left Behind Act" (H.R. 1, 2001): "Where topics are taught that may generate controversy (such as biological evolution), the curriculum should help students to understand the full range of scientific views that exist, why such topics may generate controversy, and how scientific discoveries can profoundly affect society."

Among the "aspects" to be considered under this indicator would be evidence for and against biological evolution (the theory of undirected common descent). At least four types of evidence might be discussed:

(a) The fossil record. The principal features of the fossil record are the abrupt appearance of new species (e.g., the Cambrian explosion), stasis (equilibrium) over long periods of time, and then extinction. This general pattern of observed fossils, including the scarcity of transition forms between species, seems inconsistent with the gradual processes associated with macroevolutionary theory.

(b) Homologies in vertebrate limbs. Homologies are similarities in structure and form among different organisms. Homologies may suggest either a common ancestry or a common designer (archetype), depending on how the evidence is interpreted.

(c) Embryology. The argument from embryology proposes that similarities in the stages of developing embryos from different species suggest a common ancestry (macroevolution). However, the findings of modern embryology show that embryos from different organisms are different at all stages of development.

(d) Information and specified complexity. All life processes are orchestrated by the coded instructions (information) contained in the DNA molecule. Very complex, highly specified molecules and processes are found in all living organisms. It is questionable whether naturalistic (evolutionary) mechanisms can account for the origin of such "specified complexity" in life systems.

The "scientists" referred to in this indicator would include mainstream evolutionists as well as dissenters. Using the language in this indicator, teachers and school districts will be able to include criticism of Darwinian theory as well as discussion of alternatives. The inference of the parenthetical statement regarding "intelligent design" is that a discussion of ID is permitted in the classroom, at the discretion of the teacher and local school officials. Overall, the addition of this indicator has resulted in substantial improvement of the biological origins standards.

Indicator. Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolutionary Theory) #24. Analyze how natural selection and other evolutionary mechanisms (e.g., genetic drift, immigration, emigration, mutation) and their consequences provide a scientific explanation for the diversity and unity of past life forms, as depicted in the fossil record, and present life forms.

Comment. Inserting the word "may" before "provide" would help to show that evolution is a theory. The study of the origin and development/diversity of life on earth is a historical discipline. As such, in the words of Ernst Mayr ("Darwin's Influence on Modern Thought," Scientific American, July 2000, p. 80): "Evolutionary biology, in contrast with chemistry and physics, is a historical science - the evolutionist attempts to explain events and processes that have already taken place. Laws and experiments are inappropriate techniques for the explication of such events and processes. Instead one constructs a historical narrative, consisting of a tentative reconstruction of the particular scenario that led to the events one is trying to explain." Theories that are proposed in a historical science are always tentative, and alternative explanations are possible. It is unfortunate that the historical aspect of evolutionary theory is not mentioned in the indicator.

In the context of this indicator, teachers should discuss how the fossil record can be interpreted to support, and also not to support, the theory of undirected common descent.

Indicator. Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolutionary Theory) #25. Explain that life on Earth is thought to have begun as simple, one-celled organisms approximately 4 billion years ago. During most of the history of the Earth only single-celled microorganisms existed, but once cells with nuclei developed about a billion years ago, increasingly complex multicellular organisms evolved.

Comment. This indicator assumes that Darwinian evolution (macroevolution) occurred. Substitution of the word "appeared" for "evolved" would help to show that evolution (undirected common descent) is not the only viable theory to explain the diversity of life forms.

Students should know that a basic assumption of evolutionary theory is methodological naturalism, the doctrine that science is limited to natural explanations for phenomena. Naturalism specifically assumes that design (teleology) plays no role in science. One effect of this assumption is that evolutionary theory in many respects has not been tested by comparing it with the competing design hypothesis and the evidence that supports it. As a consequence, evolutionary explanations are generally based only on a consideration of evidence not excluded by the naturalistic assumption, and not on the basis of all the evidence.

Naturalism is a reasonable assumption for empirical sciences like chemistry and physics. There is considerable debate, however, as to whether or not naturalism should be employed in historical sciences like cosmology and origins science. Chemical evolution and biological evolution assume naturalism as a precondition, and it is unfortunate that the standards do not disclose and explain this to students.

The origin of life and its subsequent development are really separate subjects. That is, before any biological evolution can occur, life must originate. The origin of life remains a mystery.

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Indicator. Grade 10, Scientific Ways of Knowing (Nature of Science) #3. Recognize that science is a systematic method of continuing investigation, based on observation, hypothesis testing, measurement, experimentation, and theory building, which leads to more adequate explanations of natural phenomena.

Comment. This indicator very nicely addresses point (c) in the teach-the-controversy approach. The proposed new "definition of science" is quite appropriate in that it allows for consideration of all logical explanations for phenomena in nature. The new definition is appropriate for empirical (experimental) sciences (like chemistry and physics) as well as for historical sciences (like biological origins).