These are the current draft benchmarks and indicators (September 2002) relating to "biological origins" (the origin and development/diversity of life on earth). As in earlier drafts, biological evolution is presented as the only possible explanation for biological origins.

Science Excellence for All Ohioans has emphasized the "teach the controversy" approach to biological origins. This approach was first described by Dr. Stephen Meyer at the March 11, 2002, Panel Presentation in Columbus. This includes (a) teaching the evidence for and against biological evolution (macroevolution - the theory of common descent), (b) permitting, but not requiring, teachers to discuss alternative theories such as intelligent design, and (c) adopting a definition of science that allows for consideration of all logical explanations for phenomena in nature.

The current draft standards do not support the "teach the controversy" proposal. Two of SEAO's Modifications would provide the language needed to substantially implement this approach. The first of these is a new indicator:

Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolution Theory, insert after #25). Discuss how various types of scientific evidence may either support or not support the theory of descent with modification from a common ancestry (e.g., embryological development in vertebrate classes, fossil progression, biogeographical distribution, homologies, vestigial structures, biological complexity, biological information). (NOTE: The consideration of alternative theories, such as intelligent design, is permitted - but not required - under this standard.)

The second would be a change in a current draft indicator:

Grade 10, Scientific Ways of Knowing (The Nature of Scientific Inquiry) #3. Recognize that scientific knowledge is limited to explanations for natural phenomena based on evidence from our senses or technological extensions. There is disagreement as to whether scientific inquiry should consider all logical explanations for phenomena, or whether inquiry should be limited to naturalistic (materialistic) explanations.

The following is a complete list of SEAO's proposed Modifications. The suggested changes are largely derived from the first three sets we presented earlier (December 1, 2001, April 1, 2002, and July 1, 2002). Note that we have only addressed benchmarks and indicators that deal with biological origins in some way; most of these are in the Grade 10 Life Sciences section. Also, we have not listed any standards from Grades 11-12, since these are not subject to state testing.

Current draft benchmark. Grades 9-10, Life Sciences-E. Explain how evolutionary relationships contribute to an understanding of the unity and diversity of life.

Modified benchmark. Explain how evolutionary relationships may contribute to an understanding of the unity and diversity of life.

Explanation. The word "may" is added to indicate that biological evolution is a theory.

Current draft benchmark. Grades 9-10, Life Sciences-H. Describe a foundation of biological evolution as the change in gene frequency of a population over time, and explain the historical and current scientific developments, mechanisms and processes of biological evolution.

Note. No modification is suggested for this benchmark.

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Current draft benchmark. Grades 9-10, Life Sciences-I. Explain how natural selection and other evolutionary mechanisms account for the unity and diversity of past and present life forms.

Modified benchmark. Explain how natural selection and other evolutionary mechanisms may account for the unity and diversity of past and present life forms.

Explanation. The word "may" is added to indicate that biological evolution is a theory.

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Current draft benchmark. Grades 9-10, Earth and Space Sciences-C. Explain the 4.5 billion-year-history of Earth and the 4 billion-year-history of life on Earth based on observable scientific evidence in the geologic record.

Modified benchmark. Describe how the observable scientific evidence in the geologic record may be used to gain information on the history of Earth and life on Earth.

Explanation. "Explain" is too strong a word in the original benchmark. The geologic record is incomplete and may be interpreted in different ways to reconstruct a tentative scenario of events in Earth's history. Geologic times are estimates with wide variations.

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Current draft indicator. Grade 8, Life Sciences (Evolution Theory) #4. Explain that diversity of species is developed through gradual processes over many generations (e.g., fossil record).

Modified indicator. Explain that diversity of species is developed through both gradual and rapid processes over many generations (e.g., fossil record).

Explanation. The general trend observed in the fossil record is the abrupt appearance of new species (e.g., the Cambrian explosion), stasis over long periods of time, and finally extinction (often catastrophic). This pattern of abrupt appearance, stasis, and extinction shows that both gradual and rapid changes must have taken place in Earth's history. To mention only "gradual" processes in the indicator is thus inaccurate.

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Current draft indicator. Grade10, Life Sciences (Diversity and Interdependence of Life) #12. Describe that biological classification represents how organisms are related, with species being the most fundamental unit of the classification system. Relate how organisms are arranged into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups based on similarities and differences that reflect their evolutionary relationships.

Modified indicator. Describe that biological classification represents how organisms are related, with species being the most fundamental unit of the classification system. Relate how organisms are arranged into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups based on similarities and differences.

Explanation. The Linnaean classification system (which is still used to a large extent) was developed during the 18^th century, long before the advent of Darwinian evolution. Thus it is inaccurate to say that classifications of organisms "reflect their evolutionary relationships." Classifications are based on similarities in form and function.

It is true that some modern (cladistic) methods seek to develop classifications based on evolutionary relationships. Cladistic taxonomy is troublesome in practice, however. For example, Richard Dawkins (The Blind Watchmaker, 1996, p. 284) says "it is difficult to pin down the precise identity of ancestors, and there is a good case for not even trying to do so."

Current draft indicator. Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolution Theory) #20. Recognize that a change in gene frequency (genetic composition) in a population over time is a foundation of biological evolution.

Modified indicator. Recognize that a change in gene frequency (genetic composition) in a population over time is a foundation of biological evolution. Know that evolutionary theory posits that microevolution (minor genetic variation within a population) over long periods of time results in macroevolution (descent with modification from a common ancestry).

Explanation. The statement that biological evolution is a "change in gene frequency" requires clarification. A change in gene frequency would seem to be microevolution, the normal genetic variation within a population. Macroevolution, or descent with modification from a common ancestry, would require an increase in genetic information and complexity. It is debatable whether this increase in genetic information/complexity can be accomplished via proposed evolutionary mechanisms (i.e., formation of new combinations of existing genes, or mutation of genes, accompanied by natural selection). The standards should make a distinction between microevolution, which is well-supported experimentally, and macroevolution, which is ultimately based on similarities rather than experimentation.

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Current draft indicator. Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolution Theory) #21. Explain that natural selection leads to organisms that are well suited for survival in particular environments. Explain how chance alone can result in the persistence of some inherited characteristics having a reproductive advantage or disadvantage for the organism. Recognize that when an environment changes, the survival value of some inherited characteristics may change.

Note. No modification is suggested for this indicator, since it basically describes microevolution (which is well accepted). In any case, the validity of natural selection is not the issue. The issue is whether natural selection and other evolutionary mechanisms are sufficient to enact macroevolutionary change. The indicator does not consider this topic.

Current draft indicator. Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolution Theory) #22. Describe historical scientific developments that occurred in evolutionary thought (e.g., Lamarck and Darwin, Mendelian genetics and modern synthesis).

Modified indicator. Describe historical scientific developments that occurred in evolutionary thought, including alternative theories that have been considered historically as well as in recent years (e.g., Lamarck and Darwin, Mendelian genetics and modern synthesis, intelligent design).

Explanation. A discussion of historical developments in biological origins should include a discussion of theories that have competed with Darwinian evolution (such as inheritance of acquired traits, special creation, panspermia, and intelligent design).

Current draft indicator. Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolution Theory) #23. Explain that natural selection provides the following mechanism for evolution: variation in inherited characteristics exists within every species. These characteristics give individuals an advantage over others in surviving and reproducing, and the advantaged offspring are more likely to survive and reproduce. Therefore, the proportion of individuals that have advantageous characteristics will increase.

Note. No modification is suggested, since this basically describes microevolution. None of the original indicators states the Darwinian argument that natural selection over long periods time results in macroevolution.

Current draft indicator. Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolution Theory) #24. Analyze how natural selection and other evolutionary mechanisms (e.g., genetic drift, immigration, emigration, mutation) and their consequences provide a scientific explanation for the diversity and unity of past life forms, as depicted in the fossil record, and present life forms.

Modified indicator. Analyze how natural selection and other evolutionary mechanisms (e.g., genetic drift, immigration, emigration, mutation) and their consequences may explain the diversity and unity of past life forms, as depicted in the fossil record, and present life forms. Know that evolutionary biology, as a historical science, forms a tentative reconstruction of events and processes that have already taken place.

Explanation. The word "may" is added to emphasize that evolution is a theory. The study of the origin and development/diversity of life on earth is a historical discipline. As such, in the words of Ernst Mayr ("Darwin's Influence on Modern Thought," Scientific American, July 2000, p. 80): "Evolutionary biology, in contrast with chemistry and physics, is a historical science - the evolutionist attempts to explain events and processes that have already taken place. Laws and experiments are inappropriate techniques for the explication of such events and processes. Instead one constructs a historical narrative, consisting of a tentative reconstruction of the particular scenario that led to the events one is trying to explain." Theories that are proposed in a historical science are always tentative, and alternative explanations are possible.

Current draft indicator. Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolution Theory) #25. Explain that during most of the history of the earth only single-celled microorganisms existed; however once cells with nuclei developed nearly a billion years ago, increasingly complex multicellular organisms evolved.

Modified indicator. Explain that during most of the history of the earth only single-celled microorganisms existed; however, after cells with nuclei arose, increasingly complex multicellular organisms appeared in the fossil record. Know that biological evolution is a naturalistic theory that is based on the assumption that phenomena result only from naturalistic processes and not by intelligent cause.

Explanation. The original indicator assumes that Darwinian evolution (macroevolution) occurred. The modified wording makes it clear that evolution is a theory for the development of life on earth.

Students should know that a basic assumption of evolutionary theory is methodological naturalism, the doctrine that science is "limited to natural explanations for natural phenomena" (Grade 10, Scientific Ways of Knowing, indicator #3). Naturalism specifically assumes that design (teleology) plays no role in science. One effect of this assumption is that evolutionary theory in many respects has not been tested by comparing it with the competing design hypothesis and the evidence that supports it. As a consequence, evolutionary explanations are generally based only on a consideration of evidence not excluded by the naturalistic assumption, and not on the basis of all the evidence.

Naturalism is a reasonable assumption for empirical sciences like chemistry and physics. There is considerable debate, however, as to whether or not naturalism should be employed in historical sciences like cosmology and origins science. Since chemical evolution and biological evolution assume naturalism as a precondition, this needs to be disclosed and explained to students.

The origin of life and its subsequent development are really separate subjects. That is, before any biological evolution can occur, life must originate. The origin of life remains a mystery, and the latest draft of the standards has chosen not to address this issue.

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New indicator. Grade 10, Life Sciences (Evolution Theory, insert after #25). Discuss how various types of scientific evidence may either support or not support the theory of descent with modification from a common ancestry (e.g., embryological development in vertebrate classes, fossil progression, biogeographical distribution, homologies, vestigial structures, biological complexity, biological information). (NOTE: The consideration of alternative theories, such as intelligent design, is permitted - but not required - under this standard.)

Explanation. This indicator is added to reflect the proposal made by Dr. Stephen Meyer at the March 11, 2002, Panel Presentation sponsored by the Ohio Department of Education. Dr. Meyer outlined a "teach the controversy" approach that is consistent with the Santorum language in the conference report of the federal "No Child Left Behind Act" (H.B. 1, 2001): "Where topics are taught that may generate controversy (such as biological evolution), the curriculum should help students to understand the full range of scientific views that exist, why such topics may generate controversy, and how scientific discoveries can profoundly affect society." The indicator is also consistent with language in Ohio's House Bill 481, now being considered by the General Assembly.

This new indicator addresses point #2 in Dr. Meyer's proposal: "(2) Teach the scientific controversy about contemporary Darwinian theory. Mandate mastery of the scientific evidence and arguments for and against Darwinism. Students should know the scientific case for modern Darwinism and contemporary scientific critiques of the theory as well."

The note in parentheses reflects points #1 and #3 in the Meyer proposal: "(1) Do not mandate mastery of the scientific evidence and arguments supporting the theory of intelligent design. (3) Permit, not mandate, teachers to tell students about the alternative views that exist within the scientific community about the origin of new life forms - including the view of scientists who favor the theory of intelligent design."

This approach seems reasonable for several reasons:

1. It calls for coverage of evolution with intellectual honesty (since evidence both supporting and not supporting evolutionary theory is presented).
2. It promotes academic freedom for teachers (since they are permitted to discuss various aspects of evolution as well as alternative theories).
3. It enhances critical thinking in students (since they are exposed to a variety of viewpoints on the issue).
4. It generates student enthusiasm for science (since the controversy is interesting).
5. It aligns Ohio with the Santorum language in the federal education law.
6. It maintains government neutrality on a matter (biological origins) touching on religion.
7. It is supported by public opinion polls showing that Ohioans strongly favor an objective treatment of biological origins.

Current draft indicator. Grade 10, Scientific Ways of Knowing (Nature of Science) #3. Recognize that scientific knowledge is limited to natural explanations for natural phenomena based on evidence from our senses or technological extensions.

Modified indicator. Recognize that scientific knowledge is limited to explanations for natural phenomena based on evidence from our senses or technological extensions. There is disagreement as to whether scientific inquiry should consider all logical explanations for phenomena, or whether inquiry should be limited to naturalistic (materialistic) explanations.

Explanation. The original indicator gives a naturalistic definition of science. Naturalism is the "doctrine that cause-and-effect laws (as of physics and chemistry) are adequate to account for all phenomena and that teleological [design] conceptions of nature are invalid." (Webster's Third New International Dictionary - unabridged, 1971) The use of a naturalistic definition of science in the standards is problematic both scientifically and legally. The scientific method requires objectivity when considering possible explanations for phenomena in nature. A naturalistic definition of science excludes teleological considerations on philosophical grounds; there is no inherent reason in science why "natural" explanations should be the only ones considered. From a legal standpoint, the use of a naturalistic definition of science has the effect of indoctrinating students into a naturalistic worldview. This is arguably a violation of the Constitutional principle of government neutrality on a matter (biological origins) that touches on religion.

The modified indicator reflects current disagreement over the operational definition of scientific inquiry. The suggested indicator addresses point #4 in Dr. Meyer's proposal of March 11, 2002: "(4) Enact no definition of science that would prevent teachers from discussing alternative evidence-based theories or that would stigmatize the scientists who hold them as 'unscientific.' " Essentially this implies that a purely naturalistic definition of science should not be used. Instead, one should "teach the controversy" about the definition of science, and test on comprehension of the competing viewpoints. This approach has the advantage that it avoids making a politicized decision over the definition of science.